Student Paper F99-1-4
Fall 1999,
Section I
Reviewer comments
The idea of progress is one familiar to most people of today. Progress is a word likely to be used in describing the conditions of the present compared with those of the past. Most people today would recognize that humans and society have made progress from the times of past, and agree that this progress is towards an improved state. What about the peoples of these past times, did they hold this idea of human progress? If one were to look at the scene of 17th and 18th century Europe, the idea of progress may appear absent. For sure this was a time of great change: the authority and role of religion, social roles, and political thought and practice were all in a state of change. Much of this change was associated with such events as the English Civil War and the French Revolution; events with much violence, disorder, and generally not the picture of man at his best. It is the purpose of this paper to reveal the idea of human progress as a required prerequisite for the origin and direction of the political thought and action of 17th and 18th century Europe, and so hold that the idea of progress was indeed present.
Much of the political theory and specific documents of this time give a sense of new and old. Many of the authors of the time describe man in an unfortunate state of nature, but express hope for improvement, or at least the best use of this nature within a correctly governed society. Political documents possess a theme of moving away from the old and depraved times of absolute monarchs, and moving into the new horizon and liberation of man in more representative systems. The idea of human progress is expressed by three different aspects of the political works of Europe at this time. These three are; purposes served by constitutional systems, expanded recognition of individual rights, and the areas of silence in the political documents.
First, is the purposes of these new systems for governing and representing society. One purpose of the new political systems is to serve as a vehicle for progress. The new systems, originating from the political thought of the time, serve as the means for humankind and society to arrive at a better state. The idea of the governing system as a vehicle for the progress of society is one of agreement between the prominent political authors of Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau. Each of these authors placed man at a different starting point. Hobbes viewed man as innately dangerous and harmful. Locke held a more optimistic view of man, seeing him as basically good. Rousseau took somewhat of a middle ground, expressing that it was the competition between men that lead to their violent nature. Although these authors debate the starting condition of man, they all possess a hope for progress, for the betterment of man.
Although not the most obvious of the three, Hobbes does express a hope for human progress. Hobbes supported a supremely powerful and sovereign authority to rule over the people. It was this "power able to overawe" all men that would serve as a vehicle for the progress of man to a better state. It was under this condition that "industry... culture. . [and] knowledge" could be developed, and the life of man as "nasty, brutish, and short" be overcome (Leviathan, chap. 13).
Though more optimistic about the nature of man, Locke views the correct governing system as a vehicle for man to arrive at a better state. Locke, in Two Treaties of Government, stated that "civil government is the proper remedy for the inconveniences of the state of nature ... where men may be judges of their own case." With the correct governing system in place man could improve his place. The very word "remedy" suggests a means of progressing to a better state. Locke said in Second Treatise on Government, that the chief purpose of governing systems was "to preserve the members of that society in their lives, liberties, and possessions." It was expected that such a system would best serve as a way to create security for all men, and so lead to the progress of society as a whole.
Rousseau also expresses the idea of the governing system as vehicle for progressive improvement of society. Rousseau proposes a much different, even abstract idea for governing in the concept of the "general will." An in depth discussion and explanation of this "general will" can be left to those with more time and expertise, but an obvious and in our case important aspect of the "general will" can be discussed. Rousseau sees all the people coming together in a united governing body. Rousseau says all should join this body to "combine all the advantages which mutual aid offers them." With this body united, then the "common will" can "direct the forces of the State to achieve the goal for which it was founded, the common good." So regardless of the uncertainties of Rousseau's system, its central goal was the "common good" (The Social Contract). This system is the means by which to arrive at an improved state of society.
Examining the writings of the influential political authors of Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau, it is seen that each recognizes the purpose of governing systems as vehicles for progress. With this observation it only follows that these political thinkers must possess the idea of man and society progressing towards a better state, if not, then these systems serving as a vehicle of progress could not exist. The idea of governing systems as vehicles for progress, by necessity expresses the idea of humans and society progressing to a more perfect state.
Specific political documents of this time in Europe also support the idea of these new systems serving as vehicles for progress. This is not surprising given that many of these documents are substantially influenced by the ideas of Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau. The document An Agreement of the People for A firme and present Peace expresses ideas of progress in society, even while predating the major works of these three authors. This document, being influential in the drafting of future constitutional documents, states that in establishing any governing body the participants are "bound in mutual duty to each other, to take the best care we can for the future, to avoid the danger of returning into a slavish condition." Here again is the idea of progression from the depraved state of man, to an improved state for the future. Most of the constitutional documents refer to some type of social contract as the critical element supporting the new system. In all cases of these contracts, recognition of certain rights is given to the people. It is this recognition of rights that will serve as a second expression of the idea of progress in the political thought of 17th and 18th century Europe.
Before examining the specific documents, one can receive a helpful introduction from the reasoning of Rousseau. Rousseau states that "at a point in the state of nature" an individual will not have the powers to preserve himself and his rights. Rousseau then ask the question of how one can achieve the power needed to preserve self, and yet maintain ownership of oneself and individual freedom? Rousseau answers this question and problem with the statement, "the social contract offers a solution to it." Rousseau's resolution serves well to reveal the association of social contracts with progress for man. These social contracts provide the system which allows and promotes the progress of man. Social contracts do not exist only as a concept in the works of Rousseau, but exist in practice in many of the constitutional documents of this same time. With this association in mind, one can move on to the main point of recognition of rights with in the constitutional documents expressing the idea of human progress during this time in Europe.
Constitutional documents often mention the injustice and oppression of personal rights and liberties by previous governments. This oppressive nature prevents men from ascending to improved states, it stifles the potential for progress. It is only under the codes and contracts of the new constitutional documents that men receive recognition of more rights and freedoms. This recognition then allows men to be free to reach their full potential as individuals, and so society arrives at a more perfect condition as a whole. An Agreement of the People for A firme and present Peace, speaking to the people of England, states that a proper system shall "preserve you and your Posterity, from slavery, oppression, distractions and trouble." With such obstacles removed, man as an individual and society as a whole will have the freedom to progress toward an improved state. Without the idea of human progress, the recognition of rights would have little meaning or benefit to the people. With the idea of human progress, active and working, then recognizing the rights of men becomes an example of expressing this idea.
Recognition of more rights for each (and in a limited since every) man leads to greater equality among members of society in Europe. Under the context of human progress, equality gains a new aspect of significance. If it is agreed that man on an individual and societal basis is progressing to a more perfect state, if this betterment is the goal, then it is very important for each man to be plotting their progress on an equally level and unobstructed path. Until some degree of equality exist, no serious amount of progress can be made for society as a whole. Privileged individuals or groups may make substantial progress, but through inequality an appalling gap will result between this privileged group and the rest of society. Progress marked by such a rift is difficult to see as progress for society as a whole.
Extended rights and security for equality are present throughout the constitutional documents. English documents such as the Declaration of Right and the Bill of Rights, and French documents like The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen are largely composed of recognition of rights and establishing securities for equality. In An Agreement of the People for A firme and present Peace it is stated that in laws "every person may be bound alike." The political players of the time new that only with equality could their idea of human progress be fully realized.
Finally, it is worthwhile to examine what things were not said by the political thinkers and players of 17th and 18th century Europe. The content of their papers and documents reveal their belief in the idea of human progress, but so to, if to a lesser degree, does their silence in certain matters. One will not find many specific laws or statements applying restriction or limits on the actions and liberties of the people. Broad, general frameworks and ideologies exist within the documents, but specific, rigid laws are at best scarce. This silence speaks loudly of the existence of the idea of human progress. Only men possessing the idea of humans progressing, individually and as a society, to a more perfect state could have the confidence to leave so much regulation and interpretation to future generations. To possess and act with such hope and confidence in humans, one must first believe soundly that man and society are progressing towards some more perfect state.
The political thought and practice of 17th and 18th century Europe possessed, among others, the aspects of; governing systems serving as vehicles for progress, expansion of recognition of individual rights, and silence on specific, rigid laws. Each of these three aspects requires as a prerequisite the belief in the idea of human progress. To view a system as a means of arriving somewhere, one must first determine and believe reachable the destination. For the political minds of 17th and 18th century Europe the destination is a more perfect state for man and society. Expanded recognition of peoples' rights is a hollow gesture if it is not believed this freedom and equality will allow them to arrive at a better state. The political players of Europe did not see this as a hollow gesture, but recognize its value in the context of human progress. Silence in the products of political expression speak loudly the confident belief of human progress possessed by the silent players. Without such a belief, their silent confidence would be replaced by oppressive and restrictive laws, reflecting their doubt in the future of man. Whether in the works of Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau, or in the constitutional documents forming the foundation of the new systems of governing; the idea of human progress is evident as a prerequisite for the political thought of 17th and 18th century Europe.